The History of Toy Inventions

The History of Toy Inventions Toy manufacturers and toy inventors use both utility and design patents, along with trademarks and copyrights. In fact, many toys especially video games take advantage of all three types of intellectual property protection. Toys as big business did not begin until after the 1830s, when steamboats and steam trains improved the transportation and distribution of manufactured goods. Early toymakers used wood, tin, or cast iron to fashion horses, soldiers, wagons, and other simple toys. Charles Goodyears method for vulcanizing rubber created another medium for manufacturing balls, dolls, and squeeze toys. Toy Manufacturers One example of a contemporary toy manufacturer is Mattel, an international company. Toy manufacturers produce and distribute most of our toys. They also research and develop new toys and buy or license toy inventions from inventors. Mattel began in 1945 as a garage workshop belonging to Harold Matson and Elliot Handler. Their business name Mattel was a combination of the letters of their last and first names, respectively. Mattels first products were picture frames. However, Elliot started making dollhouse furniture from picture frame scraps. That proved to be such a success that Mattel switched to making nothing but toys. Electronic Toys In the early 1970s, Pong, the first patented video game was a great hit.  Nolan Bushnell  created Pong along with a company named Atari. Pong debuted in  arcades and was soon ported to home units. The games Space Invaders,  Pac-Man, and Tron followed. As technology advanced, the dedicated single game machine was replaced by programmable machines that allowed different games to be played simply by exchanging a cartridge. Inventions in circuitry and miniaturization in the early 1980s produced handheld games. Nintendo, a Japanese electronics company, along with many others, moved into the video game market. Home computers created a market for games that were versatile, action-packed, challenging, and diverse. As our technology progresses, so does the complexity and diversity of our amusements. Once, toys simply reflected everyday life and activities. Today, toys create new ways of living and teach us to adapt to changing  technologies and inspire us to follow our dreams. The History of Specific Toys From Barbie to the yo-yo, learn more about how your favorite toy was invented Barbie DollCrayonsEtch-A-SketchFrisbeeHacky SackHula HoopLEGOMr. Potato HeadPlay-DohPuzzles, Board and Card GamesSilly PuttyTeddy BearsComputer and Video GamesYo-Yo

5 School Signs That Earn an F

5 School Signs That Earn an F 5 School Signs That Earn an F 5 School Signs That Earn an F By Mark Nichol Everyone has an eye-rolling story about a teacher who misspelled words on the chalkboard or on printed assignment sheets, but a school’s marquee is too often is the scene of the crime when it comes to high-profile errors, too. The following photos document such transgressions. Sometimes, these letter kits lack enough letters to go around, or some get lost, and ingenuity prompts the letterer to improvise with a letter that looks similar to one that’s missing. This isn’t one of those times or it shouldn’t have been. The person who posted this sign obviously didn’t heed the advice. The statement reads awkwardly, too; I would have written, â€Å"Exercise your mind: Read.† Maybe the letter set lacked a colon, but they could have used a dash instead. (But they probably would have mistakenly used a hyphen, resulting in â€Å"Use your mind-read.†) Too bad the person responsible for posting this sign didn’t take a â€Å"seconnd† look at the negating note. And using hyphens as a decorative motif was ill advised. What HDJ has a â€Å"nacke† for is not paying attention to the little things like how to spell knack. I’d like to give HDJ the benefit of the doubt and assume that this photo was taken immediately after the sign was posted, and that it was immediately corrected. But how many of you have seen errors like this go uncorrected day after day? Imagine the blushes ’n’ chuckles at this event. The people responsible for posting these signs are administrative staff or, in the case of a sign like this, which requires a ladder for access, likely a custodian who are often less well educated than principals and teachers, but aren’t they provided with a memo or at least a handwritten note showing the exact wording (and lettering)? Guess not. Question: What’s worse than misspelling a word on a school sign? Answer: Misspelling the word spelling on a school sign. Done. The images above are coming from the Writers Keep and English Fail Blog. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of InfinitivesTaser or Tazer? Tazing or Tasering?20 Ways to Cry

Ethics of Public Health Policies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethics of Public Health Policies - Essay Example According Resnik (2015), ethical principles include but are not limited to the following: human subjects protection, integrity, fairness, non discrimination as well as honesty among others. Thus a public health policy should be designed to fulfill the abovementioned ethical principles. A public health policy should be non discriminatory so that it can fulfill the needs of all employees in particular regardless of their race, color or creed. In public health policies, efforts should be made to ensure that least harm is caused to other people. The deontology theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing dilemma (Rainbow, 2002). In as far as public health policy is concerned, it can be seen that the state should adhere to its duties and obligations to ensure that the employees are not harmed at work. This theory also proposes that measures should be implemented in order to minimize the chances of incidents at workplaces. On the other hand, the utilitarian theory posits to the effect that â€Å"the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the choice that is ethically correct,† (Rainbow, 2002). In this particular case, it seems that the promulgation of a public health policy will benefit the majority of the people hence it is ethically correct to implement it within the workplace. The other theory that is applicable to the above mentioned case is the rights theory. According to Rainbow (2002), the rights set by a society are protected and given priority and this is considered ethically correct with regard to implementation of a public health policy since it is every person’s health to be protected within the workplace. By using both ethical principles and theories, it can be seen that one is in a better position to analyse the situation so as to be able to reach the most correct ethical decision. The decisions

To what extent are outcomes determined by current public health policy Essay

To what extent are outcomes determined by current public health policy for children affected by parental substances abuse satisfactory in the UK - Essay Example Likewise, people who have been casualties of kid misuse or who have been brought up in neediness are more at danger (Sora, 1997). Despondency and low respect toward oneself additionally can prompt substance ill-use. At the point when individuals, kids and teenagers particularly, start to have companions who use medications or acknowledge medication use as the "standard", they are more inclined to create substance ill-use issues themselves (Magill, 2011). Children are affected badly when their parents are involved in substance abuse. Many of the researches have shown that the kids go into depression and even they become victims of substance abuse (Straussner & Fewell, 2006). Another issue which can be highlighted in this case is that, when their parents are involved in substance abuse, the children are unable to enjoy their childhood days and tend to lose on it as they have to take up to early responsibilities of supporting themselves or even their family for that matter (Barlow, 2010). There are various organizations in various countries such Children 1st in Scotland. There have been various approach improvements lately planned to endeavour to handle the issue of parental substance misuse, and the issues brought on by medications and liquor all the more by and large (Kar, 1999). Archives, for example, the Scottish Officials direction, Getting Our Necessities Right, and the Activity Anticipate Liquor Abuse (2002) have attempted to recommend system to working with individuals who abuse substances. More exertion is required to concentrate on keeping individuals from getting to be entangled in this society, and helping the individuals who are at danger of substance misuse refocus on supporting their families (Fisher & Roget, 2009). Making decisions about the best interests and future well-being of a child is complex. Every youngster and their

Soft Drink Industry Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Essay The global soft drink industry is currently expanding quite rapidly. This is due to two major factors. First, markets are expanding rapidly in developing countries and second people are turning toward natural, healthy, and low-calorie drinks. This so called â€Å"new-age† beverages, such as tea-based beverages, is considerably stimulating the development of the soft drink industry and also creating a major challenge to the carbonated beverage market. In part to address this trend, big soft drink companies, like Pepsi and Coke, are striving to become a â€Å"total beverage company† (Seet and Yoffie 95), in which they will serve the comprehensive soft drink market. Generally speaking, the soft drink off-trade value worldwide is gradually rising ever year, from $231,401 in 2001 to $323,031 in 2006 (Global Market Information Database 2007). The biggest market for soft drinks is still North America and Western Europe, which together consumed 43% of gross soft drink volume worldwide in 2006 (Global Market Information Database ‘07). However, the general developing trend for the North America and Western European market is now shrinking in terms of the global market while the Asian market is expanding very rapidly in recent years to now account for 22% of the global market (Global Market Information Database ‘07). The market volumes of Africa, the Middle East, and Australia are comparatively smaller. However, the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia-pacific markets are â€Å"emerging markets† and attract many companies, ranging from multinationals to niche specialists, who continue to see volume growth well in excess of the market average (Robinson ‘04). With the growth in volume, the average level of profitability of the soft drink industry remains quite high. First, the concentrate producers (CP’s) have become integrated with bottling companies, thereby reducing production costs. The CP’s and bottlers remain profitable through interdependence, sharing promotional and advertising and marketing costs (Seet and Yoffie 95). For example, Coca-Cola has many bottlers in different regions; therefore, their distribution cost is not as high. Furthermore, the CP’s directly negotiate with the suppliers to efficiently manage qualities for their products. In addition, their product line and distribution chain is now more systemic and integrated. Big soft drink producers increasingly franchise bottlers or buy a share from them rather than controlling bottling totally by themselves. This has activated and developed the capital-intensive bottling business. In spite of these trends competition remains intense, such as between distributors and also between new local labels and international drink corporations. Thirdly, the soft drink industry has several channels to sell to consumers such as vending machines, convenience stores, food stores (supermarkets), and national warehouses. For example after a long work-out, one quenches one’s thirst by going to a soft drink vending machine for a Cola. With this distribution channel, soft drinks are sold directly to consumers without bargaining. In 1993, Coca-Cola sold approximately 45% of their soft drinks through vending machine in the Japanese market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Another reason for the level of profitability of the soft drink industry remaining quite high is because this industry has a nearly 47% market share of the non-alcoholic beverages industry (Deichert ‘06). It is also to be noted that some of the soft drink vendors like Coca-Cola and Pepsi have gotten their logos printed on cups at fast food restaurants so that customers are readily reminded of their brands. Big name soft drinks also promote their brands by getting them placed in the middle shelves of stores to attract customers. With the constant expansion of Pepsi products into foreign countries, it may seem challenging for Coca-Cola Enterprises (CCE) to sustain their status in the soft drink industry. The soft drink industry is one of the industries that we consider mild on the degree spectrum of Michael Porter’s five competitive forces. As we look at the first competitive force, the threats of new entrants, we cannot help but consider the high capital investment in building simply a minimum bottling plant – a good amount of $20 million to $30 million is needed (Seet and Yoffie 95). This means that in the category of the threats of new entrants, bottling plant yields a low to medium degree of intensiveness. Also, a Seet and Yoffie states that in 1980, government policy intervened and established the Soft Drink Inter-brand Competition Act to help preserve the right of CP’s to include certain geographical territories (95). Meanwhile, concentrate businesses, a medium to high intensive business, involve very little capital of machinery, overhead and labor (Seet and Yoffie 95). However, it does required some advertising, promotion, market research and advertising (Seet and Yoffie 95) Another factor is that the bargaining power of suppliers of concentrate business is low. When asked, â€Å"Are they easy to be replaced? † The answer is, â€Å"Yes. † The bottling business, on the other hand, has a high bargaining power of suppliers because it is difficult to replace these businesses since they are one of a kind. There is only one Coca-Cola brand, or one Pepsi or one Seven-Up in this world. It would take years to replace these well known and well established products. On the contrary, the bargaining power of buyers of concentrate business is high while for bottling business is medium. For instance, when a concentrate company bargains with a Seven-Up company regarding their supply of recipe, Seven-Up can decide who they choose to supply their recipe to since currently there is only one Seven-Up recipe in the soft drink market. Therefore, the concentrate business has a low bargaining power of buyers. In terms of fear of threat of substitute products, the bottling business is medium. Coke and Pepsi’s franchise agreement â€Å"allowed bottlers to handle the non-cola brands of other concentrate producers (CP’s)† (Seet and Yoffie 95). The bottling companies seem to be submissive to Coke and Pepsi. Lastly, rivalry among competing firms for concentrate business seems to be quite high. There seems to exist quite a few international brands such as RC Cola, Dr. Pepper/Seven-Up, and Cadburry Schweppes, who produce only concentrate. As for the bottling business, the rivalry among competing firms is low because of certain franchise agreement such as one Coca-Cola and Pepsi presented. Seet and Yoffie reports that with the agreement a coke bottler cannot sell RC Cola, but they can distribute Seven-Up as long as they do not carry Sprite (95) Nevertheless the concentrate producers (CP’s) want to vertically integrate into bottling for two main reasons: to make their operation system more efficiency and to cut costs. These factors are interrelated. First, CP’s can make their operating system more efficient through vertical integration. For instance, if two different sectors, such as bottling business or concentration business, are following the same rules, having the same operating system then it is easier for them to work together. Second, CP’s can reduce some costs by vertically integrating. One example is transaction costs. According to Seet and Yoffie, concentrate producers’ most significant costs include advertising, promotion, market research, and bottler relations (95). For example, if CP’s were to cut down their costs from one of these significant costs, they would earn more profits. Moreover, CP’s are usually in charge of market research, product planning and advertising while bottlers play an important role in developing trade and consumer promotions. In order to have a reliable supply, CP’s have to be in direct contact with the bottlers and monitor them, therefore, CP’s need to employ more staff to work on this part. If CP’s can vertically integrate into bottling, they could save more money and in the same time provide quality with quantity. In recent years, the CCE’s sales volume in China has been growing with rates of averaging at 16 to 17 percent annually. At the same time, China’s retail environment has been changing rapidly. According to president of CCE China division, Paul Etchells, although small retail outlets are still prevalent in China, the number of hyper-marts (larger retail outlets) and supermarkets is rocketing. In China, CCE has to keep up with the rising demand for their brands. They have to continuously increase their production plants, employees, and distribution channels. CCE’s market in the US, however, has been slowing down because US consumers are becoming more health-conscious (Stanford ‘07). They are now consuming less carbonated beverages preferring diet sodas (but these are carbonated), coffee, teas, bottled water, and energy drinks. This is a problem for CCE because the majority of CCE’s products are carbonated drinks (Stanford ‘07). Another factor that slows CCE is the rising commodity cost in the US. This cost then will be passed to US consumers. Historically, the Chinese government wanted to protect the domestic soft drink industry by setting up strict regulations on foreign soft drinks companies (Seet and Yoffie 95). Today, the government is more lenient to foreign businesses (Stanford ‘07). Building new manufacturing plants and selling CCE’s products to Chinese consumers is not as hard as it was in the past. However, doing business in China requires CCE to build a relationship with the government. The concept of Guanxi is an important factor that determines the success of a company (Seet and Yoffie 95). CCE’s managers in China spent a lot of time building relationships with the Chinese officials. Since corruption is common in China and CCE is a US based company, the CCE has a disadvantage doing business in China. In the US, on the other hand, business is done more formally. There is not an urgent need to build a relationship with the government. However, an increasing number of consumers in US is concerned with issues relating to sustainability. Therefore, CCE needs to address issues such as water scarcity and pollution. In other words, China’s growing demand and US’ decreasing demand for Coca-Cola products accounted for CCE’s heavy investment in the Chinese market. Coca-cola was introduced to China in the early 1920s and came back after the declaration of the People Republic of China in 1949 through stiff negotiation with the Chinese officials (Seet and Yoffie 95). Since the 1940s, Coca-Cola dominated the U. S. market, which provided the company with financial leverage to expand into internationally and set the tone and the pricing strategy for Pepsi. At that time Pepsi did not have the matching financial power and resources to face any challenges Coca-Cola could introduce in the beverage market (Seet and Yoffie 95). Therefore, Coca-Cola and Pepsi have been fierce rivals in both domestic and international markets. Each company is using a different strategy to remain in control while increasing their net revenue. Coca-Cola entered China before Pepsi did. However, the soft drink market in China can absorb both products due to the fact that China has one fourth of the world’s population, which provides a great deal of demand for both companies to generate profit. Looking at both company’s strategies, one can see that both companies are aiming to become established in the beverage market in China. Moreover, Pepsi seems to be making better acquisition decisions than Coca-Cola; however, the financial figures reveal the victor. The purchases that Pepsi has recently made will take their toll in the form of long term debt, while Coke can concentrate more on increasing market share, as they are much less leveraged than their largest competitor. Coca-cola and Pepsi control 19% and 9% of the Chinese soft-drink market respectively. Coca-Cola operates in 23 bottling plants with total investment of $500 million, while Pepsi operates on 18 plants with total investment of $ 600 million (Seet and Yoffie 95). Coca-Cola is buying their own assets or entering in a joint venture with the Chinese government. For example in China the government owns plants and distribution centers, while Pepsi is pursuing joint ventures and mergers with local companies. The battle for the soft drink industry in China will require a great deal of financial and marketing resources to cover all aspects of competition in local industry. For example, Coca-cola officials are heavily involved with the government, where they spend almost 50% of their time catering and entertaining the government officials to gain more influence in their operation (since the corruption rate in China is high) (Seet and Yoffie 95). Doing so will provide an advantage over Pepsi because the distribution plants need to be close to the local market to be able to provide the market with competitive products that are cheap and of high quality. In comparison with Coke, Pepsi’s strategy of joint ventures with local industry helps them cut costs and pass the savings to the Chinese consumers (Seet and Yoffie 95). Finally, both companies are investing heavily and using their equity to expand and generate revenue in China, which financial figures show that they will not have any financial liquidity in the near future if they continue at the same rate of investment.

How Are Suspense and Tension Created in The Red Room? Essay -- English

How Are Suspense and Tension Created in The Red Room? In The Red Room by H.G. Wells a lot of suspense and tension is created. The Red Room fits into the gothic genre because it has some of the requirements for a gothic story in it, like, being set in a castle, an atmosphere of mystery and suspense, a prophecy, the supernatural and high levels of emotion. The story creates tension in lots of ways such as, shadows, noises, charcters and general mystery surrounding the red room. At the beginning of The Red Room the author creates tension by having the narrator straight away in a scene which is unusual to him, he is in a dark old room with old people who are mostly disfigured and slightly other worldly in the way they look and behave. â€Å"†¦ I had scarce expected these grotesque custodians.† He sees them not as ordinary people but as being grotesque so is clearly unhappy being with them. The author also immediately creates tension by talking of ghosts and the supernatural straightaway. â€Å"†¦ It will take a very tangible ghost to frighten me.† So we already have talk of ghosts in only the first line! As the narrator begins his journey to the red room more tension is created. â€Å"†¦ and my candle flared and made the shadows cower a quiver, the echoes rang up and down the spiral staircase†¦Ã¢â‚¬  so we have shadows cowering and quivering which is exactly what people do when they are frightend, the shadows are also being personified which could be a representation of the narrator’s fear. The author uses shadows again to create tension when he is on his way to the red room. â€Å"†¦ and as a shadow came sweeping up after me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  so we feel that the narrator is being chased up the staircase by something perhaps not of this worl... ...king him and this could result in something happening to him. The description also enables him to understand how the rumours in the red room could have started which makes him very nervous. Light and dark are obviously very symbolic, dark represents danger and the unknown whereas light means we are safe because we can see everything around us and it is harder to be fooled by noises or shadows in the light. Tension and suspense were constantly created in The Red Room by H.G. Well’s using various techniques, the writer uses a lot of different techniques to keep the reader wondering and to make sure that tension and suspense are always present in the story. In my opinion there is no one technique which is used to greater effect than any other one. I think that they are all used in equally effective amounts and they all help to create suspense and tension.

Genre and artist case study

Most Post-Punk music tends to keep that British essence about it, bands use their accents to help shape their music, and this is very much the case with the Arctic Monkeys. Now a days Post-Punk incorporates electronic sounds or dance music instead of the dated ass's disco. The original Post-Punk movement was influenced by Crackpot, Dub and Disco Of the sass's. But now Post-Punk revivalists like Interpol, Editors, and White Lies tend to edge toward a more atmospheric Post-Punk sound optimized by Echo and the Funnymen and Joy Division. Issues which commonly affect this genre are typically mild.I don't think that Post-Punk Revival has a major problem, unlike Hip-Hop or Dance genres. Post-Punk Revival is more of an artistic genre, where artists are more unconcerned with re-creating music from the past and so forth. Although I think that the more recent bands Post-Punk Revival bands such as The Bravery, Arctic Monkeys and Franz Ferdinand tend to have more problems with attitude. This laid back uncaring attitude comes across and the dress styles they bring with them affects people in our everyday lives, fashion is based around these types of music, and at the moment in particular.Shops like River Island and Tops all portray the music sound. And with the style comes the attitude which I personally think a lot of people are adopting. It's ore of a culture thing, as with all types of music, Indies has become a lifestyle. ‘The Indies spirit has been commodities and re-envisioned as a marketable lifestyle just like punk, Alternative, and Grunge before it†¦ ‘ Sean McCabe www. Edition. CNN. Com Post-punk is appealing to people because of the straight forward lyrics and catchy melodies.The lyrics are often about everyday life, and is seen as something that a lot of people can link to, this is another reason that it is part of our lifestyle, it talks about our lifestyle. When is comes to working relationships in the genre the key issues are cackles and unprof essional artists. One great example of an artist like this is Pete Doherty, who at one point was arrested twice in a matter of days. His manager was involved in a hit and run incident where he was using Doherty car. The singer being charged with supplying illegal drugs and other events such as rehab. Drug problem like his can also mean gig's being cancelled or ruined.And these sort of people can be hard to work with in this industry. ‘The best relationships are nurtured over the years and have been built on mutual trust and respect for different gifts we have as musicians and music equines professionals. ‘ Christopher Knap. Independent Music Consultant. Agree with this and think that this IS a common mistake in this genre, artist's come to the music industry thinking that they are in once their name gets big, but really they need to build a working relationship with colleagues. And the working relationship means that, now that they are in the spotlight they can't just do whatever they like.A history about the Arctic Monkeys The band the Arctic Monkeys are a Post-Punk Revivalist band from Sheffield, England. The Band is made up of front man Alex Turner, fellow guitarist's Cook, Bassist Nick Anomaly and Drummer Matt Holders. Bassist Andy Nicholson was the bassist of the band when the band shot to fame in 2006. Incision's reason for leaving the band was that he was suffering from fatigue. But it is now known that Nicholson was paid off by the band after they had found themselves being more of a band with Nick Maloney.We sorts found ourselves in a situation where we wanted to move forward† Alex Turner – Arctic Monkeys on Split NAME Interview The Arctic Monkeys shoot to fame – The Arctic Monkeys where one of the Auk's biggest bands in the New Millennium. Their rise began in 2005, when hey started getting offers from major labels. However the band were sticking to the Post-Punk/linden attitude of a smaller independent music label, as they tended to give the artist creative freedom with their music. â€Å"l like you, but I'm not sure about this bit, and that song could do with this changing†¦ And we never listened† – Alex Turner Arctic Monkeys Biography 2006 Seam's Craig think that this was a housewives for the Arctic Monkeys, as if they has of been signed up by a major up fading out. Also their music wouldn't have been original. ‘The market tempts bands to follow the record industry money. Those that adopt the success formula may well make it but, whatever the returns, it will be in the knowledge that they sold out their talent Seam's Craig Arctic Monkeys Biography 2006 As the Arctic Monkeys had declined offers from major labels, you would think why didn't etc remain an underground band.

Psychology Content Analysis

Violent Language and Phrases Used in the Media: A Content Analysis of a Newspaper Article Zowie George 08351856 Abstract Introduction Previous research suggests that there is a potential influence of violent media on youth violence. According to Levermore & Salisbury, (2009) their recent study found that there was a relationship between virtual aggression and actual aggression in youth exposed to various forms of violent media. There are a variety of ways to analyse texts or documents, from grounded theory to discourse analysis.Wilkinson (2008) suggests that content analysis is a commonly used approach to analysing qualitative data. Content analysis involves physically organising and subdividing the data into categories, whilst the interpretive component involves determining what categories are meaningful in terms of the questions being asked (Breakwell et al. , 2006). The theory of social representations offers a model of social knowledge, its social construction, transformation and distribution, and describes the function of experience and knowledge in social practises (Flick, 1995) and was introduced by Moscovici (1976).Social representations refer to shared beliefs and understandings between broad groups of people (Crisp & Turner 2010). The theory of social representations was adopted from Durkheim (1951), as he was the first to focus on the importance of collective representations embedded in our language, institutions and our customs (Flick, 1995). Moscovici (1973) has defined social representations as: system of values, ideas and practises with a twofold function: first to establish an order which will enable individuals to orientate themselves in their material and social world and to master it; and secondly to enable communication to take place among the members of a community by providing them with a code for social exchange and a code for naming and classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history (1 973; xvii in Flick, 1995) Two concepts are seen as central in the process of social representation; anchoring and objectification.According to Flick (1995) anchoring is to integrate new phenomena – objects, experiences – into existing worldviews and categories. Moscovici (1984, in Flick, 1995) described objectification as an imprecise idea or object being discovered, a concept converted into an image, which then becomes integrated within a pattern of figurative nucleus – a complex of images symbolizing a complex of ideas. Research of social representations has not only been about social knowledge but also, cultural objects like health and illness (Herzlich, 1973 in Flick, 1995) and politics.These issues are usually formed from theories and then transformed into popular everyday knowledge, as Crisp & Turner (2010) suggests, through discussions between individuals, or the news, media or literature. According to Flick (1995) social representations are generated, ch anged and exchanged, and spread through social groups. Social influence should also be considered within the social representation theory, as people may alter their beliefs or attitudes about certain issues, because of the effect another individual or group has on these beliefs.According to Crisp & Turner (2010) social influence is all about how our thoughts, feelings and behaviours change when in the presence of others. A classic example is from Asch (1951) where participants were asked which comparison line matched the original standard line, however when majority of people gave the incorrect answer, others would still say the same answer if even they thought it was the wrong answer and so they would conform to the majority’s viewpoint.Social representations are often used by the media to persuade, encourage and evoke certain beliefs within a group, community and society, and influence everyday practises (Jodelet, 1991, in Flick, 1995). Social representations used in the me dia allow people to understand and gain information about important issues in society, including violence. Devereux (2007) suggests every day we are presented with a plethora of images and messages about the social world; living as we do in a media-saturated society. From these media messages, people make decisions, establish and encourage beliefs about their ocial world. According to Devereux (2007) it is within media content that the shaping and framing of our understanding and perceptions of the social world takes place. Most people gain information through the media and so their perception of certain issues are moulded by the way the information is communicated (Furedi, 2002). Media does have the ability to influence people’s attitudes about violent representations as Trend (2007) suggests that media violence convinces people that they live in a violent world and violence is required to make the world feel safer.From the content analysis of my newspaper article, I establi shed two categories; group behaviour and violence, from my research question; whether there is a strong presence of negative words and phrases, used by the writer, to describe violence in the article? After analysing my article and establishing my categories, I wanted to establish the social representations of violence used by the media in our society. After studying previous research about gang violence in the UK, I found that the media helps to influence violence through films, television, internet and video games.As Gunter (et al. , 2003) suggests, a casual link exists between violence on television and viewer reaction, where governments worry about the role such a mass medium plays in promoting antisocial conduct. There are concerns that the media has the power to influence the public and in turn people’s behaviour as Trend (2007) suggests violent representations are so deeply ingrained in our culture and part of human nature so deeply that we can’t root it out.The ultimate concern about television violence is founded on the view that it contributes toward social violence (Gunter et al. , 2003). However Trend (2007) argues that media violence simply reflects today’s society, as Furedi (2002) suggests, we live in a violent society. Method Holsti (1969:14, in Bryman, 2008) describes content analysis as, any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages. Content analysis is used to determine the presence of certain words or phrases within a text or set of texts.Bryman (2008) suggests how research has also been conducted on visual images, radio and television news and song lyrics. As the analysis technique is done systematically, the approach is done in a consistent manner in order to avoid personal bias from the researcher. This will result in anyone being able to repeat the analysis and come up with the same results. (See Fig. 1. 7 for advantages and disadvantages). Fo r my own research analysis, I used content analysis to analyse a chosen newspaper article about gang violence in Britain.The research question for my analysis was; Whether there is a strong presence of negative words and phrases, used by the writer, to describe violence in the article? I decided to use an article from The Independent as I wanted to use an article that had a variety of information and a strong content, as that would make it easier to analyse and would give a good amount of data to interpret. The research question is vital when using content analysis, as this will guide the selection of media content to be analysed and the coding schedule.According to Bryman (2008) if the research questions are not clearly articulated, there is a risk that inappropriate media will be analysed or the coding schedule will miss out key dimensions. During the content analysis of my article, I counted the number of words that related to my research question, afterwards I was able to code t he data into categories for me to analyse. Content analysis offers the prospect of different kinds of units of analysis being considered (Bryman, 2008). Certain coding units that could be used to analyse a piece of text include; words, phrases, themes and characters.The two categories I established to be analysed are; group behaviour and violence. I came to these particular categories because of the use of certain words in the article that related to violence including; murder, bloody and shooting and for group behaviour; gangs, feral and tribal loyalty. Once I had my two categories I was able to count the number of words that fall into each category and present my results in a table. During the process of content analysis, I worked within a group in order to validate the content analysis of my chosen article.Each group member analysed each others article to ensure the coding units related to the research question, so hopefully each group member would come up with the same results. Findings After completing the content analysis of my chosen article, the results support and answer my research question; whether there is a strong presence of negative words and phrases used by the writer, to describe violence in the article? The results of the analysis (See Fig. 1. 1) show that for the violence category there were 63 words, 3 phrases and 9 sentences which related to violent language.In total 75 words and phrases were used in the article to describe violence. For the second category in my content analysis, group behaviour, there were 51 words, 10 phrases and 7 sentences that had a reference to a violent nature in the article, equalling to 68 words and phrases altogether. In total 143 words out of 975 words, for the whole article, related to and described violence, with the use of negative words (See Fig. 1. 2). Some of the negative words used in the article to describe violence include; criminal, virus, fatality and risk being victimised. See Fig. 1. 3, 1. 4 & 1. 5 ). Following the group analysis, in which we each analysed the other member’s newspaper article, I found there were several similarities; a majority of words and phrases that both I and my group member had found in the article and chosen categories, with several new words that I had not used in the first content analysis that I conducted. And some differences; in which some words I had used, my group member had not highlighted, which I later used in the my final content analysis. (See Fig. 1. 6).For the first page of the article, the writer is describing the events of the riots, a recent set of disturbances committed by youths and gang members all over the UK and some of the violence that had taken place. Violent language is used frequently throughout the first page of the article such as; attacks on police, shot and burning. In addition, several other violent words and phrases were used in relation to group behaviour, for the first page of the article in which the writer des cribes how gangs were acting violently and some of the group dynamics in gangs.These included words such as; form alliances, declare allegiance and competes for territory. The second page of the newspaper article is describing some of the first accounts of gangs and gang related behaviour in Britain. In addition recent reports about gun and knife crime is mentioned as well as some of the characteristics of gangs, with words including; feral groups of very angry young people and mask gangster-style. Discussion From the results of my content analysis into a newspaper article, the research question has been supported and there is links to support the theory that media has an influence on violent youth behaviour.Escobar-Chaves & Anderson (2008) suggest researchers have found strong evidence that media contributes towards violence. In addition, Trend (2007) states that the consumption of violent media can be liked to crime and violence. Individuals learn aggressive responses in much the same manner as they learn other social behaviours, either by observation or through direct experience (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Bandura, 1978, in Levermore & Salisbury, 2009).If violent behaviour is something people learn, media might have a huge influence (Trend, 2007). According to Escobar-Chaves & Anderson (2008) youths are spending increasing amounts of time using electronic media, with an average youngster now spending one third of each day with some form of electronic media. This suggests adolescents may be influenced by the media, into learning aggressive behaviour, pick up any newspaper or turn on the TV and you will find either violent imagery or a story about violent media (Trend, 2007).According to the US Senate Committee (1999, in Trend, 2007) a young person will witness 200,000 simulated violent acts and 16,000 dramatized murders by the age of 18. In addition, children are exposed to ever-increasing amounts of actual violence in their communities as well as virtual vio lence in the media (Hill, Levermore, Twaite, & Jones, 1996, in Levermore & Salisbury, 2009). This could have a negative effect on children as Gunter (et al. , 2003) suggests children may learn aggressive behaviour patterns from watching television.This assertion of social learning theorists was demonstrated in Bandura, Ross, and Ross's (1961; 1963) famous Bobo doll experiments where children imitated aggression toward dolls just after they had witnessed an adult being aggressive toward the dolls, either in person or on film (Hayes, Rincover, ; Volosin, 1980, in Levermore ; Salisbury, 2009). Children are constantly limited to watching television than doing any other form of social interaction, leading the mass media to dominate their socialization (Gunter et al. 2003). This may have a negative effect on children if they are frequently viewing violent scenes in their social surroundings; an increased likelihood of aggression being triggered by screen violence (Berkowitz, 1984, 1994: B erkowitz ; Rogers, 1986 in Gunter et al. , 2003). Gender is a factor of importance in violent representations showed in the media, as the biggest audience of media violence is adolescent boys, as young men are socialized to view violent media as an important part of gender identification (Trend, 2007).The ability to tolerate violent imagery within the media can be regarded as a measure of a young man’s masculinity and strength between peers. The media image of men these days also tells them that they have to be tough in certain ways (Trend, 2007) which is where violent behaviour comes in, as the media violence shapes peoples thinking to behave a certain way and make them feel as if they should use force. However there have been studies trying to establish why there is so much youth violence in society, with some evidence to suggest that the media is not the only factor as to why youths act violently.A study by Hood (2001) showed how violence in the media was found to have an impact on aggression learnt in the home, in which; violence in the family exerted profound impact on children, leading to indirect and direct aggression. Most psychologists will say that it is what is learned or acquired through experiences that cause people to become violent (Trend, 2007). Violent social representations can be found in all different forms of the media; from the internet, video games and television programmes; television is the source of most broadly shared images and messages in history (Gerbner et al. 1980) and violence on television can take many different forms (Gunter et al. , 2003). Even programmes such as the News can broadcast violent imagery to its audience, as according to Trend (2007) the news media serve up accounts of murder, gang warfare, workplace violence and killer moms, and is far more likely to broadcast stories about negative activities such as; crime and conflict, than a positive story. A common accusation is that television contains too much vi olence (Gunter et al. , 2003).Other forms of media representing violence in society include computer games as Trend (2007) suggests; they are fast advancing to become the leading source of violent entertainment. Anderson (et al. , 2007) suggests that students spend inordinate amounts of time playing video games with violent themes and seems more interested in the violent images than in the game itself. The results of a recent survey by Gentile, Lynch, Linder ; Walsh (2004) show how boys played video games 13 hours per week and 5 hours a week for girls (Anderson et al. 2007). After watching violent social representations people will become accustomed to such images in the media, with some individuals wanting to see more violence in various media formations. Trend (2007) suggests the desire for violent representations is not a deviation from a social norm, it is the norm. Guttmann (1998, in Gunter et al. , 2003) suggests an attraction to violence in entertainment has a history that pr edates the modern mass media and can be traced back to the popularity of violent sporting spectacles in Greek and Roman times.With a desire for violent representations, comes aggressive behaviour and violent acts towards society. By the late 1990’s a consensus around the notion that violence in the media must produce violence at home and in the streets, was solidified (Trend, 2007). According to Trend (2007) people commit violence simply because they’ve become aroused or excited, and violent scenes in TV or film heighten the viewer’s emotions and could relive tension or built up hostility. One explanation for the enjoyment of screen violence is that it is exciting and therefore arousing (Zillmann, 1978 in Gunter et al. 2003). Therefore representations of violence have remained popular (Trend, 2007). Conclusion To conclude, people can be influenced into having certain beliefs or attitudes about a variety of issues including youth violence, by other individuals an d the mass media in society. Both can have an effect and cause people’s behaviour to change more violently. As violent representations are ingrained in our media environment, they need to be understood in order to protect our communities and so that youth violence in society can be controlled.Otherwise, there may be people growing up with the belief that the world is a violent place, that violence is a good way to solve problems and that violent characters are people to be admired and emulated (Trend, 2007). My analysis has shown that perhaps too many violent representations are in our society and throughout the media, with people growing up wanting to act violently towards their community. If people are going to be fed violent imagery through different forms of media, then there will be a profound effect on their attitudes and therefore their behaviour will change towards a violent nature.Media and the society have to accept some responsibility for a rise in violent behaviou r in youths and adolescents, and will need to think of changing how the media represents violence in society and whether there should be violent images broadcasted to individuals at all. References Anderson, C. A. , Gentile, D. A. and Buckley, K. E. (eds. ) (2007) Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: theory, research and public policy. NY: Oxford University Press Inc. Barry, M. (2006) Youth offending in transition: the search for social recognition. NY: Routledge. Berryman, J. Ockleford, E, Howells, K, Hargreaves, D. and Wildbur, D. (2006) Psychology and you: an informal introduction. 3rd ed. Oxford: BPS, Blackwell Publishing. Breakwell, G. M. , Hammond, S. , Fife-Schaw, C. and Smith, J. A. (eds. ) (2006) Research methods in psychology. 3rd. ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Bryman, A. (2008) Social research methods. 3rd. , ed. NY: Oxford University Press Inc. Crisp, R. J. and Turner, R. N. (2010) Essential social psychology. 2nd. ed. London: SAGE Publications Lt d. Devereux, E. (2003) Understanding the media. 2nd. ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Doyle, A. 2003) Arresting images: crime and policing in front of the television camera. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. Escobar-Chaves, S. L. and Anderson, C. A. (2008) Media and risky behaviours. Journal of the future of children, 18. 1 pp. 147-180. Field, A. and Hole, G. (2003) How to design and report experiments. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Flick, U. (1995) ‘Social Representations’ in Smith, A. J. , Harre, R. and Langenhove, L. V. (eds. ) Rethinking psychology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 70-96. Furedi, F. (2002) Culture of fear: risk taking and the morality of low expectation.NY: Continuum. Gerbner, G. , Gross, L. , Morgan, M. , Signorelli, N. and Shanahan, J. (1980) ‘Growing up with Television: Cultivation Processes’ in Bryant, J. and Zillmann, D. (2008) Media effects advances in theory and research. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Gunter, B. , Harrison, J. and Wykes, M. (eds. ) (2003) Violence on television: distribution, form, context and themes. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Levermore, M. A. and Salisbury, G. L. (2009) The relationship between virtual and actual aggression: youth exposure to violent media. The forensic examiner, 18. 2 pp. 2-42. McGhee, P. (2001) Thinking psychologically. NY: Palgrave, Macmillan. Trend, D. (2007) The myth of media violence: a critical introduction. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Wilkinson, S. (2008) ‘Focus groups’ in Smith, J. A. (ed. ) Qualitative psychology: a practical guide to research methods. 2nd. ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 197-201. Appendix Fig. 1. 1 Categories| Frequency| Violence| | Words | 63| Phrases| 3| Sentences| 9| Total| 75| | | Group Behaviour| | Words| 51| Phrases| 10| Sentences| 7| Total| 68| | | Overall Total| 143| Fig. 1. 2 Coding Unit| Frequency| | Words| 114| Phrases| 13| Sentences| 16| Characters| 6| Themes| 4| | | Fig. 1. 3 Fig. 1. 4 Fig. 1. 5 Fig. 1. 6 Group Analysis of Article| Zowie Zoya | Gangs| x| x| Ghettoes| x| | Rioters| x| | Fatality| x| x| Riots| x| x| Dying| x| x| Shot| x| x| Violence at heart of the riots| x| x| Incident| x| | Gang culture| x| x| Anarchy| x| x| Group of friends| | x| Another group| | x| Altercation| x| | Car chase| x| | Shooting| x| x| Rivalry| x| x| London’s gang culture| x| x| Alliances| x| | Criminal| x| | Groupings| | x| Looting| x| x| Hatred of the police| x| x|Gangs gathered| x| x| Burning| x| x| Attacks on police| x| | Click (clique)| x| | Turned on feds| x| | F**k| | x| Click on click beef| x| | Man got duppied (killed)| x| x| Kill some of the fed man| x| x| Burning shops and buses| x| x| Dashing rocks| x| x| Bloody| x| x| Perverse| x| | Britain’s gang culture| x| x| Code of the streets| x| | Ruthlessly enforced| x| x| Rules| x| | Chaotic| x| x| British street gangs| x| x| Spread| x| | Virus| x| | Crime| x| | London has 257 street gangs| x| x| Ga ng members| x| x| Tackling gangs| x| x| Youth violence| x| x| Gangsterism| x| x|More young people are being drawn into a minor affiliation even those who do not take part in crime| x| x| Allegiance| x| | Risk being victimised| x| x| Youths| x| | Form alliances| x| x| The NPK gang| x| | Competes for territory| x| x| Targets| x| x| Terrified of| x| | Dispute| | | Territorial| x| x| Turf war| x| x| Declare allegiance| x| | Johnson gang| x| | Murder| x| x| Street gang culture| x| x| Need for protection| x| | Stabbed to death| x| x| Mask gangster-style| x| | Aiming a shotgun| x| x| Gang activity| x| x| Represent whole neighbourhoods| x| x| Enemy| x| x| Hardened| | x| Gangsters| x| x|Disturbances| | x| Worst rioting| x| x| Highest gang activity| x| x| Rising gang violence| x| x| Rival crews| x| x| Targeted| x| x| Dangers| x| x| Feral groups of very angry young people| x| x| Tribal loyalty| x| x| Violence and drugs is a way of life| x| x| Fig. 1. 7 Content analysis has several advantages, such as it being a very flexible approach to analysing texts, as the technique can be applied to a variety of different media (Bryman, 2008). Wilkinson (2008) suggests an advantage of content analysis is that, it also allows for the conversion of qualitative data into a quantitative form.Content analysis also allows information to be generated about social groups (Bryman, 2008). Wilkinson (2008) suggests that a main disadvantage of using this technique is that a great deal of detail is lost. Other issues include; the analysis is reliant on one researcher, where as it is advisable to involve two or more people in the coding of the texts, so that the reliability of the analysis can be systematically assessed (Breakwell et al. , 2006) and most often the context of the text is ignored. In addition content analysis can be extremely time consuming.

Overview of Mali History and Independence

Overview of Mali History and Independence Malians express great pride in their ancestry. Mali is the cultural heir to the succession of ancient African empires – Ghana, Malinkà ©, and Songhai – that occupied the West African savannah. These empires controlled Saharan trade and were in touch with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern centers of civilization. Kingdoms of Ghana and Malinkà © The Ghana Empire, dominated by the Soninke or Saracolà © people and centered in the area along the Malian-Mauritanian frontier, was a powerful trading state from about A.D. 700 to 1075. The Malinkà © Kingdom of Mali had its origins on the upper Niger River in the 11th century. Expanding rapidly in the 13th century under the leadership of Soundiata Keita, it reached its height about 1325, when it conquered Timbuktu and Gao. Thereafter, the kingdom began to decline, and by the 15th century, it controlled only a small fraction of its former domain. Songhai Empire and Timbuktu The Songhai Empire expanded its power from its center in Gao during the period 1465-1530. At its peak under Askia Mohammad I, it encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria) and much of the territory that had belonged to the Mali Empire in the west. It was destroyed by a Moroccan invasion in 1591. Timbuktu was a center of commerce and of the Islamic faith throughout this period, and priceless manuscripts from this epoch are still preserved in Timbuktu. (International donors are making efforts to help preserve these priceless manuscripts as part of Malis cultural heritage.) The Arrival of the French French military penetration of the Soudan (the French name for the area) began around 1880. Ten years later, the French made a concerted effort to occupy the interior. The timing and resident military governors determined methods of their advances. A French civilian governor of Soudan was appointed in 1893, but resistance to French control did not end until 1898 when the Malinkà © warrior Samory Tourà © was defeated after 7 years of war. The French attempted to rule indirectly, but in many areas, they disregarded traditional authorities and governed through appointed chiefs. From French Colony to French Community As the colony of French Soudan, Mali was administered with other French colonial territories as the Federation of French West Africa. In 1956, with the passing of Frances Fundamental Law (Loi Cadre), the Territorial Assembly obtained extensive powers over internal affairs and was permitted to form a cabinet with executive authority over matters within the Assemblys competence. After the 1958 French constitutional referendum, the Republique Soudanaise became a member of the French Community and enjoyed complete internal autonomy. Independence as the Republic of Mali In January 1959, Soudan joined Senegal to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent within the French Community on 20 June 1960. The federation collapsed on 20 August 1960, when Senegal seceded. On 22 September Soudan proclaimed itself the Republic of Mali and withdrew from the French Community. Socialist Single-Party State President Modibo Keita – whose party Union Soudanaise-Rassemblement Dà ©mocratique Africain (US-RDA, Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally) had dominated pre-independence politics – moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization. A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses. Bloodless Coup by Lieutenant Moussa Traorà © On 19 November 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. Moussa Traorà © as Chairman. The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought. A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule. However, the military leaders remained in power. Single Party Elections In September 1976, a new political party was established, the Union Dà ©mocratique du Peuple Malien (UDPM, Democratic Union of the Malian People) based on the concept of democratic centralism. Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and General Moussa Traorà © received 99% of the votes. His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led, anti-government demonstrations, which were brutally put down, and by three coup attempts. The Road to Multi-Party Democracy The political situation stabilized during 1981 and 1982 and remained generally calm throughout the 1980s. Shifting its attention to Malis economic difficulties, the government worked out a new agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, by 1990, there was growing dissatisfaction with the demands for austerity imposed by the IMFs economic reform programs and the perception that the President and his close associates were not themselves adhering to those demands. As demands for multiparty democracy increased the Traorà © government allowed some opening of the system (the establishment of an independent press and independent political associations) but insisted that Mali was not ready for democracy. Anti-Government Rioting In early 1991, student-led, anti-government rioting broke out again, but this time government workers and others supported it. On 26 March 1991, after 4 days of intense anti-government rioting, a group of 17 military officers arrested President Moussa Traorà © and suspended the constitution. Amadou Toumani Tourà © took power as the Chairman for the Transitional Committee for the Salvation of the People. A draft constitution was approved in a referendum on 12 January 1992 and political parties were allowed to form. On 8 June 1992, Alpha Oumar Konarà ©, the candidate of the Alliance pour la Dà ©mocratie en Mali (ADEMA, Alliance for Democracy in Mali), was inaugurated as the President of Malis Third Republic. President Konarà © Wins Election In 1997, attempts to renew national institutions through democratic elections ran into administrative difficulties, resulting in a court-ordered annulment of the legislative elections held in April 1997. It demonstrated, however, the overwhelming strength of President Konarà ©s ADEMA Party, causing some other historic parties to boycott subsequent elections. President Konarà © won the presidential election against scant opposition on 11 May. Amadou Toumani Tourà © General elections were organized in June and July 2002. President Konare did not seek reelection since he was serving his second and last term as required by the constitution. Retired General Amadou Toumani Tourà ©, former head of state during Malis transition (1991-1992) became the countrys second democratically elected President as an independent candidate in 2002 and was reelected to a second 5-year term in 2007. Source Public Domain, US Department of State Background Notes.

Latitude Geography Overview

Latitude Geography Overview Latitude is the angular distance of any point on Earth measured north or south of the equator in degrees, minutes and seconds. The equator is a line going around Earth and is halfway between the North and South Poles, it is given a latitude of 0 °. Values increase north of the equator and are considered positive and values south of the equator decrease and are sometimes considered negative or have south attached to them. For example, if a latitude of 30 °N was given, this would mean that it was north of the equator. The latitude -30 ° or 30 °S is a location south of the equator. On a map, these are the lines running horizontally from east-west. Latitude lines are also sometimes called parallels because they are parallel and equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (111 km) apart. The degree measure of latitude is the name of the angle from the equator while the parallel names the actual line along which degree points are measured. For example, 45 °N latitude is the angle of latitude between the equator and the 45th parallel (it is also halfway between the equator and the North Pole). The 45th parallel is the line along which all latitudinal values are 45 °. The line is also parallel to the 46th and 44th parallels. Like the equator, parallels are also considered circles of latitude or lines that circle the entire Earth. Since the equator divides the Earth into two equal halves and its center coincides with that of the Earth, it is the only line of latitude that is a great circle while all other parallels are small circles. Development of Latitudinal Measurements Since ancient times, people have tried to come up with reliable systems with which to measure their location on Earth. For centuries, both Greek and Chinese scientists attempted several different methods but a reliable one did not develop until the ancient Greek geographer, astronomer and mathematician, Ptolemy, created a grid system for the Earth. To do this, he divided a circle into 360 °. Each degree comprised 60 minutes (60) and each minute comprised 60 seconds (60). He then applied this method to Earths surface and located places with degrees, minutes and seconds and published the coordinates in his book Geography. Although this was the best attempt at defining the location of places on Earth at the time, the precise length of a degree of latitude was unresolved for around 17 centuries. In the middle ages, the system was finally fully developed and implemented with a degree being 69 miles (111 km) and with coordinates being written in degrees with the symbol  °. Minutes and seconds are written with , and , respectively. Measuring Latitude Today, latitude is still measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. A degree of latitude is still around 69 miles (111 km) while a minute is approximately 1.15 miles (1.85 km). A second of latitude is just over 100 feet (30 m). Paris, France for example, has a coordinate of 48 °5124N. The 48 ° indicates that it lies near the 48th parallel while the minutes and seconds indicate just how close it is to that line. The N shows that it is north of the equator. In addition to degrees, minutes and seconds, latitude can also be measured using decimal degrees. Paris location in this format looks like, 48.856 °. Both formats are correct, although degrees, minutes and seconds is the most common format for latitude. Both, however, can be converted between each other and allow people to locate places on Earth to within inches. One nautical mile, a mile type used by sailors and navigators in the shipping and aviation industries, represents one minute of latitude. Parallels of latitude are approximately 60 nautical (nm) apart. Finally, areas described as having low latitude are those with lower coordinates or are closer to the equator while those with high latitudes have high coordinates and are far. For example, the Arctic Circle, which has a high latitude is at 66 °32N. Bogota, Columbia with its latitude of 4 °3553N is at a low latitude. Important Lines of Latitude When studying latitude, there are three significant lines to remember. The first of these is the equator. The equator, located at 0 °, is the longest line of latitude on Earth at 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km). It is significant because it is the exact center of the Earth and it divides that Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It also receives the most direct sunlight on the two equinoxes. At 23.5 °N is the Tropic of Cancer. It runs through Mexico, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India and southern China. The Tropic of Capricorn is at 23.5 °S and it runs through Chile, Southern Brazil, South Africa, and Australia. These two parallels are significant because they receive direct sun on the two solstices. In addition, the area between the two lines is the area known as the tropics. This region does not experience seasons and is normally warm and wet in its climate. Finally, the Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle are also important lines of latitude. They are at 66 °32N and 66 °32S. The climates of these locations are harsh and Antarctica is the largest desert in the world. These are also the only places that experience 24-hour sunlight and 24-hour darkness in the world. Importance of Latitude Besides making it easier for one to locate different places on Earth, latitude is important to geography because it helps navigation and researchers understand the various patterns seen on Earth. High latitudes for example, have very different climates than low latitudes. In the Arctic, it is much colder and drier than in the tropics. This is a direct result of the unequal distribution of solar insolation between the equator and the rest of the Earth. Increasingly, latitude also results in extreme seasonal differences in climate because sunlight and sun angle vary at different times of the year depending on latitude. This affects temperature and the types of flora and fauna that can live in an area. Tropical rainforests, for example, are the most biodiverse places in the world while harsh conditions in the Arctic and Antarctic make it difficult for many species to survive.

Physical activity and health and physical fitness and exercise Assignment

Physical activity and health and physical fitness and exercise - Assignment Example Research also shows, through obesity experts, that the modern phase of obesity epidemic is much associated with the reduced human activity brought about by the industrial development (Garry, Neeltje, & Klaas, 2001). To qualify the relevance of this theory, a research that was done in an Old Order Amish Community in North America proved that these people have a very high level of activity lifestyle, which was used to explain why they have low prevalence of obesity. This group of people does not drive automobiles, use electrical appliances, and they do not also employ other modern conveniences (David, Patrick, & Getrude, 2004). Regular exercise is a very important component of effective health promotion regimens, the only problem being the correct amount of exercise required daily as well as the correct daily caloric expenditure. There is an imbalance in lifestyle due to the technologically oriented conditions which allow unprecedentedly sedentary lifestyle (Boyd & Stanley, 2003). Ther efore, physical activity is very critical for a healthy living and through physical fitness and exercise, we can do away with lots and lots of unnecessary